La relación entre el peso y el dólar
estadounidense han estado íntimamente relacionados. Quizá por su cercanía
geográfica o quizá por su cercanía histórica. Parecen sus símbolos tener
orígenes comunes dados los acontecimientos de la época. Este es una breve
reseña de los hechos.
El peso duro o peso real
Antes de la llegada de los españoles,
la moneda de cambio era el cacao, el jade, las mantas de algodón o el polvo de
Cobre. Fue hasta 1497 cuando los reyes españoles acuñaron por vez primera
el real de a ocho, o peso duro, o duro, o peso real, o dólar español,
o piastra (quizá del italiano, placa de metal delgada,
o voz indígena para referirse a esa moneda). Todogracias a la
reforma monetaria española, la Pragmática de Medina del Campo. El real
de ocho era una moneda de Plata con un peso de 27.468 gramos y una pureza del
0.93055 %; es decir, contenía 25.560 gramos de Plata pura.
La moneda tenía un valor exacto de 8
reales o 272 maravedís. De ahí su nombre. Un real de ocho equivalía a un
duro. Dos reales equivalía a un escudo. Cada real de ocho podía
partirse en 4 reales, 2 reales, 1 real y ½ real. Por lo que en ocasiones eran cortadas físicamente para ser intercambiadas en denominaciones más pequeñas.
Fig. 1. Ocho reales de plata
con el escudo de los Reyes Católicos
(Acuñado en Sevilla. Sin fecha pero
posterior a 1497)
Fig. 2. Real de a ocho durante el
reinado de Carlos III (1759-1788)
El real de a ocho fue una moneda de uso
en gran parte del mundo. Circulaba en América, Europa y Asia. Sirvió de base
para el dólar norteamericano, el dólar canadiense, el yen japonés, el yuan
chino, el peso filipino, etc. Después de 1897 los EEUU dejaron de usarla como
moneda válida.
El uso del signo “$” para definir al
peso, se dice proviene de la costumbre de emplearlo como símbolo de “suma” en
algunas de las notaciones mercantiles. Aunque también se dice tiene un origen
similar al dólar con dos barras transversales (ver más delante), pero cayó
en desuso y quedó un símbolo con una sola barra, $.
El dólar norteamericano
La palabra dólar se acuñó por
vez primera en 1519 en la ciudad de Joachimsthal en Europa central, en una
parte que corresponde a la hoy república Checa. En un principio conocida en
alemán como KThal (valle) y que cambió a Sankt Joachimsthal o Joachimsthal.
Su nombre se traduce como Valle de San Joaquín. La moneda usada en
ese lugar se llamaba Joachimisthaler, que se abrevió a thaler,
daller, dólar, y que después se usó para referirse a cualquier moneda o
divisa en varias partes del mundo de aquél entonces. De ahí el nombre de dólar
español para referirse al real de ocho, moneda española.
El 2 de abril de 1792 nació el sistema
monetario de los EEUU. Tomó como base la moneda española. Incluso en un
principio dichos dólares estadounidenses tenían como garantía los reales de
ocho.
En relación al símbolo la “S” con dos
barras transversales para denotar al dólar norteamericano, hay varias
hipótesis acerca de su origen. Una de ellas parece estar en el escudo de armas
español y reproducido en la moneda del real de ocho. Se trata de las dos
columnas de Hércules; alegoría mitológica acerca las columnas que
flanqueaban el estrecho de Gibraltar, una en España y otra en Marruecos, límite
del mundo conocido de los griegos. Dichas columnas están unidas por una
leyenda Plus Ultra (“más allá”) y se piensa evolucionó al símbolo:
Fig. 3. Analogía de las columnas de
Hércules y el signo del dólar
Hay otras versiones. Una que afirma el
símbolo se originó de la abreviatura española “Ps”, pesos, piatras o
pesos de ocho, donde se superpusieron las letras “P” y “s”. Otra,
que proviene de las monedas españolas elaboradas en el Potosí, la actual
Bolivia, entre 1576-1825. Las letras PTSI superpuestas se dice dio origen a
dicho símbolo.
Las reservas
Actualmente varios de los bancos
centrales del mundo tienen como garantía para la moneda, sus reservas en Oro,
que a su vez respalda los billetes que emite su gobierno. Sin embargo los EEUU
basan sus reservas fundamentalmente en el dólar mismo y la confianza que se otorga a ese país.
The Day
of the Dead is a celebration deeply rooted in Mexican culture. Its origins date
back to pre-Hispanic times. Some authors mention its origin 3000 years ago. It
represents one of the most important festivals in the Mexican tradition.
Although this celebration has been incorporated into the Catholic tradition,
part of the evangelizing syncretism, it strictly lacks a religious connotation.
Its celebration depends on the region of Mexico where it occurs and the
predominant pre-Hispanic culture. In Yucatán, for example, Hanal Pixán ("Food of the souls") is celebrated.
I. ORIGIN
The cult of the dead is a tradition that dates back to before the arrival of
the Spanish people. According to Náhuatl mythology, when people died they undertook a
long journey to Mictlán, the region
of the dead. Mictlantecuhtli (Lord of
the underworld, Lord of the shadows) and Mictecacihuatl
(Lady of death), presided over the place. To reach Mictlán, the deceased had to
travel a long and arduous journey along the path of the dead. Once that journey
was finished, the lords of Mictlán allowed their soul (teoyoli) to stay and take their deserved eternal rest.
The trip to Mictlán was divided into nine regions or levels with a series of
tests that the deceased would have to overcome, if someone wanted to be admitted to
the region of the dead. These tests depended on the strengths and weaknesses
that he had had during his life. A journey that lasted four years.
First level: Chiconahuapan or Iztcuintlán,
"Nine rivers" or "Land of dogs"
The deceased had to cross a dangerous and mighty river (Apanoayan). For this
adventure the man was helped by a brownish dog (Xolot-Izcuintli), which was buried
together with the recently deceased.
Second level: Tepecli Monamictlán, "The place where the hills meet"
In the second site, the deceased had to cross in the middle of two mountains
that collided with each other. To deceive those mountains he used paper figures
that had been placed in the offering (papel picado).
Third level: Iztepetl, "Mountain of peredenal" (Pedernal, kind of sharp thin rock)
At the third
site, the recently deceased had to cross a hill covered with sharp flints. As
he was buried naked, he had to protect himself with the blankets put on the
offering.
Fourth level: Itzheyacan, "Place of the obsidian wind"
This
place was a cold place (Cehuecayan)
with eight hills that were always covered with snow. A desolate place of ice
and rugged stone. To cope with it, the deceased covered himself with the
clothes that were placed in the offering.
Fifth level: Paniecatayocan, "The place where people fly and turn like
flags"
In this place, the deceased had to cross eight desolate lands, where the wind
seemed to cut with obsidian blades. The dead people lost their balance and the winds
carried them away.
Sixth level: Timiminaloayan, "The place where people are freaked
out"
In this place the dead continued along a path where they had to dodge certain
pointed arrows, which were thrown by invisible hands on their corpses.
Seventh level: Teocoyohuehualoyan,
The sixth
site, he had to face a jaguar that devoured the hearts of men. The traveler
gave the jaguar a jade sphere, to prevent the beast from devouring his heart.
Eighth level: Iztmictlan Apochcalolca, "The black water lagoon"
In this place there was a thick lake of black water (Apanhuiayo) where the great lizard, Xochitonal (Flower of the
spirit) lived. The traveler was helped by the dog to outwit the lizard. The
dead man had finished disincarnating and his Tonalli (soul) was completely liberated from the body.
Ninth level: Chicunamictlan, "The place of the nine waters"
At this site, the deceased had to cross Chiconahupan (the nine waters) again
aided by the Xolot-Izcuintli.
The trip to Mictlan was for common men (Macehualli). For warriors killed in
battle, the journey was direct to Tonatiuhichan (the house of the Sun). The
women who died during childbirth, cihuateteo (divine women), were taken to the
Cincalco (the house of corn). The drowned at Tlalocan (place of Tlaloc).
Imagen. 1a. Travel to Mictlán
Imagen. 1b Travel to Mictlán
Imagen 2.The lords of the underworld
Image 3. Mictlantecuhtli (Lord of the underworld)
Image 4. Mictecacihuatl (Lady of death)
II. THE
XOLÓT-IZCUINTLI
The word Xolót-Itzcuintli comes from Nahuatl, Xólot, "monster,
unpleasant", and Izcuintli, "dog"; that is to say, the “monster
dog”. Despite his ugliness, the ancient Mexicans had great respect for him;
especially for those of brownish color. It was said that they accompanied and
assisted the deceased on his journey to the Mictlan.
This animal with more than 7000 years of antiquity, was on the verge of
extinction due to the extermination ordered by the spanish people; They knew about
the cult that pre-Hispanic cultures had for It, in addition to the fact that
it was good food for their troops. However, some survived to this day, thanks
to their shelter in the mountains of Oaxaca and Guerrero.
It is an animal with a not very pleasant aspect, with its tongue sticking out,
without some teeth and without hair. Not attractive when compared to other
dogs. Quetzacoátl's twin brother, the name of this dog is implicitly
Xólot-Quetzcacóatl. According to Mexica mythology, he was a god capable of
descending into hell. He was the God of transformation, of duality, of night
darkness, of the unknown, of death. The ideal companion to guide and protect
the deceased on a journey to the underworld.
Currently the xolót-izcuintle breed is a highly appreciated dog with costs that
can cost up to $ 20,000 mx (about 1000 usd). There are three sizes: small,
medium and large.
There is a curious similarity between the Mexica and the Egyptian culture. In
Both there was a tradition of the cult of death. For the Egyptians, who carried
the deceased to the underworld was a god named Anubis; a character with a human
body and a jackal's head. According to Egyptian mythology, the heart of the
deceased was placed on a balance that had a feather as a counterweight. If both had
the same weight, the deceased could go to heaven; on the contrary, Anubis led
the deceased to the underworld.
Image 5. Xolót-Itzcuintli
Image 6. Anubis, guardian of the tombs, Egyptian culture
III. THE
ALTAR OF THE DEAD
Undoubtedly the fact that best reflects the cult of the dead is the Altar of
the Dead. Offering that is made in many of the homes of Mexico, in government
offices, public squares and museums. It contains a set of objects, images,
fruits, food, etc., which represent a form of respect by the Mexican people for
their deceased.
This altar consists of several levels or steps that exemplify the worldview of
the pre-Hispanic peoples. They are a symbol of the material and immaterial
world, related to the four elements of nature.
Altar with 2 levels: It symbolizes the division of heaven and earth, and is
represented with the fruits of the earth and the bounties of heaven such as
rain.
Altars with 3 levels: Symbolizes heaven, earth and the underworld. Catholicism
introduced the idea of earth, purgatory, and the kingdom of heaven; or the
elements of the Holy Trinity
Altars of 7 levels: It symbolizes the seven levels that the deceased goes
through on his journey to Micttlan and thus obtain eternal rest and peace of
the soul from him.
In turn, the Altar as a whole has representations of the four elements. Namely:
-Norte: Air Element. Represents winter, the color blue (incense).
-South: Element Earth. Represents summer, the color green (flowers, vegetables,
fruits, etc.).
-East: Water Element. Represents spring, the color yellow (water, tequila,
pulque)
-West: Fire Element. Represents autumn, the color red (candles)
This symbolism is also found in the Sacred Ceiba, Ya'ax'che, the tree venerated
by the Mayab inhabitants in the Yucatán peninsula of Mexico. It was represented
by a green cross, an analogy of the four cardinal points.
Although it looks like a the Catholic cross, it no has relation to
it. It is an ancient symbol that dates back to long before the arrival of the
Spanish people. It was certainly a trait that greatly helped the Spanish people friars to
achieve the evangelization of the Indians
Image 7. Ceiba tree, Ya´ax'che
Image 8. The Cross of sacred Ceiba and the 4 cardinal points,
from the Mayan culture
(Museum of the Mayan World)
The Cempaxúchitl flower from Nahuatl, Cempohualli, "twenty" and Xóchitl, "flower"; The twenty-petal flower is an essential component of the offering. Its yellow petals are said to mark the path that the deceased had to travel during his visit. It was thought that it kept the warmth of the Sun and that its aroma guided the dead.
Image 9. Cempasúchil flower with skull
The most common components used in the Altar of the Dead are the following:
- Water, reflection of purity
- Candles and tapers, light that allows guiding the deceased
- Copal and incense, to harmonize the environment and drive away bad spirits
- Cempaxúchitl, flower that guides souls to reach the family home
- Arch, made of marigold flower and fruit, is a symbol of the entrance to the underworld
- Catholic cross, element included for evangelization
- Cross of lime, with seeds or flowers, represent the four cardinal points that
formerly they were associated with the four elements
- Bread, food for the deceased
- Petate (a kind of carpet made of corn leaves), for the resting of the souls
- Photography, to have respect to the person who wishes to honor
- Food, the favorite of the deceased
- Itzcuintli, faithful dog that guides the deceased
- Sugar skull, symbol of death
- Salt, which gives flavor to food and purifies the soul
- Papel picado (specially prepared paper) of various colors that give presence and joy to the altar
Image 10. Characteristics of The Altar of the Dead
IV. DEAD BREAD
The bread of the dead characteristic of this celebration, made of flour and
sugar, is customarily decorated with a central sphere and side ornaments, which
symbolically represents a skull and four quills. It is also a way of evoking
the Nahui Ollin, "the four movements", an essential part of the
Nahuatl worldview.
Image 11. Dead bread
V. THE DATES OF CELEBRATION
Several of the pre-Hispanic cultures celebrated from months before to the date
that today (late October and early November); however, there are special dates
of celebration according to the reason.
- October 28: Start date of the tribute to the dead. It is to receive the souls
alone. The first candle is lit and a white flower is placed.
- October 29: Dedicated to the forgotten and helpless deceased. Another candle is
lit and a glass of water is placed.
- October 30: Dedicated to the deceased who went without food or died in an
accident. Another candle is lit, another glass with water and white bread is
placed.
- October 31: Dedicated to the dead of the dead (ancestors), grandparents and
great-grandparents and great-great-grandparents.
- November 1: Dedicated to those who died as children, young souls, "little
angels." All the food is placed on the altar. All Saints Day.
- November 2: Day of the faithful departed. It is said that after 12 noon the
souls collect the offerings and the altars are erected. Copal incense is burned
and a path is adorned with cepaxúchitl flower, to guide the dead to the altar.
- November 3: The last white candle is lit, copal is burned, the souls of the
dead are said goodbye and they are asked to return the following year. The
offering is raised.
VI. THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY
There was a belief in the pre-Hispanic tradition, especially in the Purépecha
culture, that the souls of the ancestors return to live with their relatives,
precisely around this date of celebration for the deceased. This return occurred
when said souls return converted in the form of a Monarch butterfly. For that
reason, in the last days of October and early November, this type of butterfly
reaches the state forests that today we call Michoacán.
Image 12. The Monarch butterfly and the tradition of the Day of the Dead
VII. THE CATRINA
Created by José Guadalupe Posada (1852-1913), engraver, cartoonist and
political leader of the early 20th century, this character was an elegant lady
who dressed in the fashion of the time, and that Posada used to ridicule the
Porfirian high bourgeoisie. She called him the garbancera skull (ordinary,
vulgar). Together with her, he created a large number of cartoons
(revolutionaries, generals, townspeople, children, etc.). In 1947 Diego Rivera
(1886-1957) painted a 4.70 x 15.60 m mural, entitled Dream of a Sunday
afternoon in the central avenue. In this mural, that figure that Rivera called
him appeared for the first time: La catrina (very elegant lady).
It is said that this character is the representation of Mictecacihuatl (Lady of
Death), of the Mexica tradition. Since then this elegant lady has been found in
a variety of magazines, events, and traditions. She represents one of the most
important cultural icons that is never missing on the Day of the Dead holiday.
Image 13. La catrina and Guadalupe Posada´s cartoons
Image 14. Diego Rivera´s mural, Dream of a Sunday afternoonin the central avenue
VIII. THE SKULLS (Las calaveritas)
The skulls, part of the tradition of the Day of the Dead, is a literary custom
that began at the end of the viceroyalty in Guadalupe, Zacatecas, with Fray
Joaquín Bolaños, author of the oldest known composition and reflected in the
book La portentosa life from death. They were formerly known as pantheons. They
were born at the end of the 19th century as a way to write epitaphs and to
secretly express ideas that could not always be said directly. They were
published for the first time in 1849 by in the newspaper El Socialista de
Guadalajara. It is a literary composition that at the time was a form of
mockery of political power, which the people used as a criticism and rejection
of the government of the time.
To our loved ones
We put an altar for them,
Well their souls and heartbeats
We are sorry to return!
So we celebrate them
With big pieces of bread,
Placed on altars
With flowers, candles, mezcal!
Note. The rhyme of the verses makes sense in Spanish
IX. HALLOWEEN VS. DAY OF THE DEAD
Unlike Halloween, The Day of the Dead is a celebration of joy, of joy, of
honor, of respect for the deceased. Its name comes from the English All Hallows
'Eve, which means “All Saints' Eve”. It is known as Halloween and comes from an
ancient Celtic tradition called Samhaim, of pagan origin celebrated on October
31 and November 1. By means of this the end of the harvest was commemorated and
it was considered as a “Celtic New Year”. It was a holiday that tried to drive
away the demons so that they would not hinder the harvests.
In that sense, the tradition of the Day of the Dead is far from resembling
Halloween. The first one older than the second. It was already celebrated
in pre-Columbian cultures. Contrary to Celtic tradition, the celebration of the
faithful departed is a reunion of the family with their ancestors. They are
invited to return. To live with his relatives. All in an atmosphere of joy,
rejoicing and festive atmosphere. Symbols are skeletons only. They do not pose
any harm to their family members. Contrary to Halloween, use witches, monsters,
vampires and all kinds of characters with sinister behavior.
IN CONCLUSION
Mexican celebrations have strong ties to their pre-Hispanic past. The Day of
the Dead and all the ceremonies around it are no exception. The history of
Mexico is a product of the syncretism of indigenous culture and Spanish
culture. However, the cosmogonic vision of the ancient Mexicans surpasses any
traditional conception. Turn Mexico into an expression of magic, tradition,
worship and rhythm.
Despite the years, the customs and memories of a people committed to its past,
refuse to die. Sooner or later traditions emerge in the hectic postmodern
world. It is carried in the blood, in its flavors, in the dress and in its
complete idiosyncrasy.
The celebration of the Day of the Dead people is a ritual of enormous respect and
affection that the Mexican people pay to their deceased. No one knows the value
of the past better than a Mexican; sometimes in the form of an anchor,
sometimes in the form of a catapult. Mexico's relationship with death is
different. The mexican people make fun about dead, They eat It in the form of sweets, They do not seem to be afraid of dead; nevertheless they offers their respect and worships to the dead.
Thus in a paradoxical way, death and life intersect in a constant dialectical
spiral, full of magic and splendor.
"Time ceases to be succession and returns to what it was, and is,
originally,
a present where the past and the future are finally reconciled."
Octavio Paz (1914-1998). The Labyrinth of lonelinesse.
CONSULTED SOURCES
De Sahagún, Bernardino Fray (2010) Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva España. Porrúa. México.
De la Garza, Mercedes (1997) “El perro como símbolo religioso entre los mayas y nahuas”. Estudios de cultura náhuatl. Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas. UNAM. Volumen 27. Págs. 111-133.
De la Garza, Armando (2015) Historia de la catrina garbancera. México extraordinario. Consultado 30 de octubre, 2019. (http://mexicoextraordinario.mx/historia-de-la-catrina-o-garbancera). Denis, Patricia (2012) “El altar de muertos”. Revista de divulgación científica y tecnológica. Universidad Veracruzana. Volumen XXV. Número 1. Enero-Junio.
Marion, Marie-Odile (2000) “Bajo la sombra de la gran ceiba: la cosmovisión de los lacandones”. Desacatos. Centro de Investigación y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social.. Número 5. México.
Johansson, Patrick (2003) “Días de muertos en el mundo prehispánico”. Estudios de cultura náhuatl. Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas. UNAM. Volumen 34. Págs. 167-203.
Pérez Bolde, Alfredo (1996). Altar de Muertos. Universidad de Guanajuato. México.
Ruiz, Gonzalo (2019) La historia del Halloween. Sobre Historia. Consultado 30 de octubre, 2019 (https://sobrehistoria.com/la-historia-de-halloween/)
Sánchez Tapia, Miguel (s/f) El culto a los muertos. Crónicas. Dirección de Identidad Universitaria. Universidad del Estado de México. Tomo VIII.
Sandoval, Eduardo (1997) Cuando los muertos regresan. Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México.
s/a (2017) Cómo surgieron las calaveritas. El Universal. México. Consultado 30 de octubre, 2019. (https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/cultura/patrimonio/como-surgieron-las-calaveritas-literarias).
s/a (2018) Día de Muertos en México. México Desconocido. Consultado 30 de octubre, 2019. (https://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/dia-de-muertos.html).
s/a (2018) Altar de muertos. México Desconocido. Consultado 30 de octubre, 2019. (https://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/altar-de-muertos-elementos-que-debe-llevar.html?fbclid=IwAR1JATuRJhJGCjeVT43OUU2oTpO9N_stlRXoc%E2%80%A6 )
En la filosofía hermética se habla de siete principios. Uno de ellos se le conoce como el "Principio de polaridad". No soy quien y tampoco es éste el espacio para discutir el punto. Sólo retomo sus elementos esenciales: "Todo en el universo es dual", todo tiene su contraparte. O si se prefiere, "todo tiene su complemento".
Según entiendo este principio, para una idea, aspecto, tema o tesis, hay otra complementaria. Así en términos sencillos se podría decir que para el día hay una noche, para arquetipo femenino hay uno masculino, etc.
Hay dos de muchas corrientes de pensamiento y acción que pueden citarse. En este caso me referiré a: La ciencia y el arte. Ambas aparentemente se contraponen, pero me atrevo a decir que más bien se complementan. Caminan por rutas paralelas. Quizá nunca se juntan; pero una intuye a la otra.
La ciencia en básicamente una visión pragmática, precisa, sistemática, pero falible diría Mario Bunge. Es la mejor opción que los seres humanos han encontrado para avanzar en la lucha contra las enfermedades y hacer de la vida, una de mejor calidad. Por otro lado el arte es impreciso, vago, lleno de incertidumbre; es decir, si bien es cierto tiene en un inicio el apoyo de ciertas técnicas o destrezas, el grueso de su expresión está basado en la creatividad de quién la ejecuta. No obedece a principios necesariamente sistematizados, sino que deja al autor brotar su imaginación. No hay límites. No hay restricciones. Todo es un mar de incertidumbre, en el sentido de que no puede, ni debe ajustarse a una norma. Por eso es arte.
Estos dos corrientes de aparentes propósitos contrarios, se buscan y se necesitan. Cuando un científico por gusto y convencimiento propio, además de su labor como investigador, profesionista o académico, busca darse una espacio para apreciar o practicar algunas de las bellas artes, su mente sufre una cambio tal que comienza a percibir aspectos más sutiles de su propia labor como científico, que antes no se percataba, porque su mente literalmente se abre. Igual ocurre con el artista que entra en contacto con la ciencia. Su mente comienza a percibir aspectos que le proporcionan material para su actividad. El caso de Salvador Dalí y sus cuadros dedicados al entonces descubrimiento del ADN a inicios de los años 50, prueban este hecho.
Hoy sabemos que el cerebro tienen dos hemisferios que se complementan e interactúan: El hemisferio derecho, abstracto, irracional, holístico, creativo; y el hemisferio izquierdo: Racional, lógico, pragmático, individualista, preciso. En mi opinión eso mismo ocurre con la ciencia y el arte. Como dos hermanos gemelos. En la medida que el científico se acerca al arte, se vuelve más creativo. En la medida que el artista se acerca a la ciencia, se vuelve más productivo.
Esa entre otras, esa es la razón por la que en cualquier nivel del proceso educativo, ambas disciplinas, ciencia y arte, debieran integrase en el currículum educativo. Los niños y jóvenes tendrían un mejor desarrollo si combinan ambas. Una forma de estimular sus sentidos. Se sabe que el cerebro no descansa aunque la persona duerma; la serie de conexiones neurológicas siguen formándose. Por eso que en un artista o en un científico, de pronto surge una idea, una solución, un proyecto. Algo que no se había pensado.
Finalmente como dijera Fernando Pessoa:
"La literatura, como el arte en general, es la demostración de que la vida no basta "
